Diabetes Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 4

Diabetes - Research Paper Example The A1C Diagnostic Tool The testing of diabetes has long been faced with a myriad of challenges that include insufficient diagnosis of the disease. Several diabetes diagnostic tests have been developed over the years but all of them are not accurate as the Haemoglobin A1C level test. The A1C test is undertaken to test the amount of sugar present in the red blood cells. The test looks into the average blood glucose levels in patient’s body for a period of two to three months. The A1C test uses an averaging system whereby a patient’s blood glucose levels are tested based on a percentage system (Cunha-vaz, 2011). Diabetes tests conducted using the A1C diagnostic testing tools have been very accurate in estimating blood sugar levels of a patient over a long period of time. Compared to other tests, the A1C test does not require a patient to fast without food for periods of time since the test can be conducted at any time (Ford-Martin, 2004). A1C Research Tests A research was conducted to test the effectiveness of the A1C diagnosis test in South Korea over a period of 6 years. The test was conducted to find out the best levels for haemoglobin A1C level for different diabetes patients this included patients belonging to different races. The research targeted a total of 10,038 participants were included in this research and they first underwent a 75-g oral glucose test tolerance test at baseline with two year follow up. Among the research participants, 572 of them had a previous history of having diabetes (Ford-Martin, 2004). From the results a receiver operating characteristic curve was used to estimate the diagnostic accuracy of the A1C cut-off. The results established that at the baseline 635 participants representing 6.8% had previously undiagnosed diabetes. An A1C cut-off of 5.9% produced the highest sum of sensitivity at 68% and specificity (91%). At the end of the research, after 6 years 895 (10.2%) participants had developed diabetes. An A1C cut-o ff of 5.6% had the highest sum of sensitivity (59%) and specificity (77%) in the identification of consequent 6-year incident diabetes. After variations in adjustment it was found that men with A1C baseline of 5.6% had a 2.4 fold increased risk while women with the same baseline had a 3.1 fold increased risk of contracting diabetes in the future (Cunha-vaz, 2011). The research study was successful in concluding that patients with a 5.9% A1C cut-off identified participants with undiagnosed diabetes. The study also concluded that people with A1C equal or greater than 5.6% had increased risk of contracting diabetes in the future. Integration of A1C The research study undertaken by researchers on the agreed levels of Haemoglobin A1C test was important in determining the agreed levels of A1C suitable for diagnosing diabetes. From the research we are able to learn that doctors have found out that people with Haemoglobin A1C level of ? 5.6% have a higher risk of contracting diabetes. Due t o the accuracy of using the A1C diagnosis testing, Doctors are now able to easily detect diabetes in the body. Many researchers agree that the A1C test and research was important in coming up with a standardised A1C cut-off which was put at the level of 6.5%. The results of the South Korean research concluded that the A1C levels of 5.9% contributed to patients contracting type 2 diabetes (Cunha-vaz, 2011). While on the other hand, the same study was conducted among the Japanese population and they found out that an A1C cut-off

Stem Cell Research - The field of stem cell research Essay

Stem Cell Research - The field of stem cell research - Essay Example Many of the signals required to induce formation of specialized adult cells must be present in these tumors, but unlike embryos, tumors generate adult cell types in a hopelessly undirected manner. If a developing embryo is not to end up a mass of disorganized tissues, it must do more than generate adult cell types. Embryos must orchestrate and choreograph an elaborate stage production that gives rise to a functional organism. They must direct intricate cell movements that bring together populations of cells only to separate them again, mold and shape organs through the birth of some cells and the death of others, and build ever more elaborate interacting systems while destroying others that serve only transient, embryonic functions. Throughout the ceaseless building, moving, and remodeling of embryonic development, new cells with unique characteristics are constantly being generated and integrated into the overall structure of the developing embryo. Science has only the most rudimentary understanding of the nature of the blueprint that orders embryonic development. Yet, recent research has begun to illuminate both how specific adult cells are made as well as the central role of stem cells in this process. The term "stem cell" is a general one for any cell that has the ability to divide, generating two progeny (or "daughter cells"), one of which is destined to become something new and one of which replaces the original stem cell. In this sense, the term "stem" identifies these cells as the source or origin of other, more specialized cells. There are many stem cell populations in the body at different stages of development. For example, all of the cells of the brain arise from a neural stem cell population in which each cell produces one brain cell and another copy of itself every time it divides. The very earliest stem cells, the immediate descendants of the fertilized egg, are termed embryonic stem cells, to distinguish them from populations that arise later and can be found in specific tissues (such as neural stem cells). These early embryonic stem cells give rise to all the tissues in the body, and are therefore considered "totipotent" or capable of generating all things. Review of the Research While the existence of early embryonic stem cells has been appreciated for some time, the potential medical applications of these cells have only recently become apparent. More than a dozen years ago, scientists discovered that if the normal connections between the early cellular progeny of the fertilized egg were disrupted, the cells would fall apart into a single cell suspension that could be maintained in culture. These dissociated cells (or embryonic stem cell "lines") continue to divide indefinitely in culture. A single stem cell line can produce enormous numbers of cells very rapidly. For example, one small flask of cells that is maximally expanded will generate a quantity of stem cells roughly equivalent in weight to the entire human population of the earth in less than sixty days. Yet despite their rapid proliferation, embryonic stem cells in culture lose the coordinated activity that distinguishes embryonic development from the growth of a teratoma. In fact,

Violence Against Nursing Workplace Health And Social Care Essay

Violence Against Nursing Workplace Health And Social Care Essay Nurses are on the front lines and the back bones in the health sectors . Workplace violence is becoming an important issue that all organizations, these behaviours , especially that of bullying are detrimental and effect staff , patients , and outcome. Violence are defined as ( an incident that results in physical injury).(Duncan, Hyndan 2001 as cited in Denise,2009). Regarding to many research I found that nurses in emergency department and in mental health sectors are the most high risk staff who are facing violence form patients , their families and visitors because of many factors that I will discussed on my paper . The aim of my research is review background of workplace violence . In addition to, identify situations and specific patient groups susceptible to being involved .Furthermore , identify the most health care sectors that are more susceptible to violence and factors leading to violence in these sectors depend on research articles to support my paper .Besides, identify the best nursing practice in the management of patient hostile behaviour and violence because nurses play a major role and the most staff dealing with different type of patient and cases. Finally, identify the role of health sector to minimize the risk of violence against nurses and the recommendation need it to prevent violence in health sectors . Violence against Nursing in Health sectors Work place violence is a serious occupational risk towards nursing.(International Council of nurses 2002 , Mc paul and Moore 2004 as cited in Jessica, Altair ,Lara, Cathy, Linda and Susan,2009).In hospital violence occurs most frequently in psychiatric wards, emergency departments ,waiting room ,and geriatric units.(Sofield and Salmond 2003 as cited in Jessica et al., 2009) they conducted studies and found that 35% to 80% of hospital staff suffering from violence either if its verbally or physically.. The causes of work site violence are multifaceted and diverse .In hospitals ,clinics, health home setting, co-workers ,family members, patients or visitors may cause or contribute to violent events.(MaggieTerriy,2005).The escalating risk in emergency department environment are reflective of patient under influence of drugs and alcohol abuse are often associated factors in patient-initiated violence on nursing staff , miscommunication and low staff levels leads to anger and long waiting times for patient.( Chalermrat , Virasakdi ,Suparnee ,Teem Rassamee,2008 ).Beside, related to emergency situation and increasing number of patient with dementia and psychosis .Other risk factors are prevalence of guns and weapons that being carried by patients and their family or friends. (Gordan,Donna,MargretPatricia,2010).In addition , lack of staff training or visible security ward. For instance, patients illnesses and unpleasant feeling ,as well as, the anxious and stress by patients and their fami ly member and also visitors are often escalated by not enough space All these factors contributing and may incite physical and verbal abuse against emergency department staff. On the other hand, nurses working in psychiatric setting have a higher risk for becoming victims of violence too. According to Gordon and Donna and Margared and Patricia,2010 was conducted a research about Workplace Violence in Health care Setting : Risk factors and protective Strategies and identify the risk factors in to perpetrator ,worker and setting environment risk factors. The perpetrator risk factors such as patient with mental health disorder like dementia, schizophrenia and alcohol and drug abuse have been associated with risk for workplace violence .However, setting and environmental factors that were related to increase risk for violence included day time versus evening and nighttimes hours .Equally important, work factors that were associated with violence include workers gender , the research show that women experienced a higher risk of verbal violence ,in contrast, men experienced physical violence.Besides,other characteristics of worker factors are number of hours wor ked per week and marital status. Employees in health care settings cant prevent all violent events,however,they can use vary strategies to protect themselves against consequence of workplace violence. Management of patient violence Nurses Violence against nurses can be dangerous aspect of ones nursing career. By providing the greatest amount of direct services to patients. nurses play a very great degree valuable role in the quality and efficiency of care and curative services.(Myduc,Stephen,Jay,Carri,Kenneth,2009). Violence can be prevented and avoided by nurses who are aware ,well trained and in control .Nursing care should be in corporate activities within the domains of providing physical, psychological and emotional support through assess physical and emotional and psychological needs for violent .In addition to maintain privacy and personal safety. Besides physical and emotional support , the nurses should enhance safety of the patient and their family by focusing on the needs of family as a whole ,also full assessment for patient and family . In addition , a calm environment and greeting can stop noisy arguments ..(Maggie and Terry,2005). Moreover, good communication skills and proper intervention are more important to reduce the effects on mental health people and performance because some patient who are violence under the influence of drugs and alcohol even the visitors of patient.(Chalermrat et al.,2008). Finally, promote self efficacy by provide patient care plan ,health education and provide information about local and national help and support and available opinion. Further-more ,encourage safety planning and recognizing the patients experience regarding their situation and respecting and support patient and their family decision.(Gordon,2008). Violence preventing training for hospital is one step in reducing the incidence of violence in hospital emergency rooms. Potentially, violence patients and visitors can be recognized by the hospital staff by attending training in violence prevention .Also, alert supervisors to any concerns about safety and report all incident immediately in writting.(Tessa,Sue,Maureen,John,Martha,Sabina,Sandra,Greg,2010). Staffs work together or with a professionally trained individual to provide an open atmosphere in which to discuss the critical violent incident and need to learn donà ¢Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Ã‚ ¢t meet aggression with aggression. Role of health care sector All of the government initiatives in arrangement in light fixture and making the manager responsible to ensure well-being of their staff and put place reporting and monitoring systems ,but more emphasis is need in identity of the trigger factors to patient behaviour and appropriate management. Similarly, the nurse play major role with violent patient ,of course the health sector play a major role to protect their staff and preventing violence .Facility administrator should provide a culture of support to those person who experience violence exposures in the work. In addition , can use a conventional and a credible system data to develop programs that increase staff safety and reduce the occurrence of violence exposure. To prevent and avoid violence , staff need to understand both violent activities and their development in the workplace . Education the staff regarding the function , role and responsibilities of the emergency nurse and the department may reduce the tension between staff. Also, education and training staff in the administration regarding the appropriate response to aggression behaviour if necessary. Moreover, close relationship with the police to tackle violence against staff to deal with the abuse behaviour once occurs.(Magie,2005). Equally important, provide enough staff member including nursing, medical officer support and security staff , besides , reduction of waiting time and the development policies and procedures to deal with the situation in case of emergency. Finally, provide video camera in emergency department to be used as evidence if necessary.(Ontario Nurses association,2008). Conclusion Nursing is a hard profession its physically and intellectually demanding. It requires patience and ability to relate to diverse types of patients ,communication skills and flexibility. Violence at work place is a complex problem which demand multifunctional actions and cooperation even with safety policies and procedures in place ,hospital and other health care setting can be dangerous places ,filled with individuals who are under stress .Part of nurses job to raise awareness in the health and aged care sectors and the community about the incidence of violence and its unacceptability as a workplace hazard are beginning to empower nurses to report violent incidents, to act to minimize risk , and to ensure their employers accept their legal obligations to provide a safe place for nurses to work and to provide care for the community. Work place violence is unacceptable not only in nursing place ,but also in all workplace . An important planning ,systematic assessment and effective responses strategies are necessary to deal with mental health illness and violent patient in any sectors ,some times its difficult, but by training sessions and copying strategies it could help to prepare nurses for violence in workplace. Failure to prevent workplace violence , it could result in prosecution , loss of valuable employees , productivity and efficiency. (Stella,MalcolmJan,2008).

An Analysis of The Harlots House Essay -- Harlots House Essays

An Analysis of The Harlot's House      Ã‚  Ã‚   Oscar Wilde's "The Harlot's House" was written in 1881, towards the latter part of the Victorian era.   This genre is a poem containing 12 stanzas.   The point of view in this piece is from the narrator's perspective early on, the narrative distance moves further distant in the fourth stanza, zooms in, then out again.    The narrator is walking down a street and pauses, with his companion, "beneath the harlot's house"   (Wilde, Longman p. 2069: 1.3).   In the next two stanzas Wilde transitions to the inside of the house depicting a partygoers atmosphere in "Inside, above the din and fray"   (2.1) and shadows of the figures inside are projected onto the blind (3.3).   This movie projector type visual picture gives this poem a choppy edited effect.      Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The imagery of this poem is vivid.   The shadowy figures of the occupants at the harlot's house are portrayed as "mechanical" (3.1).  Ã‚   The narrator and his companion watch at all that is happening at this house of ill repute.   The reader gets the sense that both stand below the window for quite some time.   Whether through fascination, or wondering how people live "on the other side of the tracks", clearly there is some allure to standing on this street watching the "ghostly dancers spin to sound of horn and violin" (4.1-2).   There are two more dances described, a quadrille in the fifth stanza, a saraband in the sixth.        Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Wilde moves the picture from a fantasy like dream, with dances and gaiety, to a pointed change of stark reality he affects by wordage.   In the 20th line, a "phantom lover" is pulled close to a "clockwork puppet" (7.1-2).   The "horrible marionette" comes to the porch to smoke, "upon ... ...ng hours and there was little to celebrate.   "Britian grew richer, but it was not the poor who benefited from this revolution" according to the Longman Anthology   (Longman p. 1818).   "The overcrowded conditions in the cities created urban slums of unimaginable wretchedness"   (p. 1819).      This wretchedness is mirrored in "The Harlot's House."   The harlot's marionette is portrayed as alive but not really living, and the narrator who stands on the street thinks he condemns a wretched lifestyle.   The irony is that, he is perhaps, just as lifeless as the marionette (only more so for being a hypocrite).    He is probably just as "dead" as the "dead dancing with the dead" at the house.    Works Cited Damrosch, David, et al., ed.   The Longman Anthology of British Literature: Vol. B.   Compact ed.   New York: Longman - Addison Wesley Longman, 2000.

India Child marriage

Child marriage in India From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation, search Small child brides in India Child marriage is a common practice in many countries around the world, however it is especially prevalent in India, where more than one third of all child brides live. [1] According to UNICEF, 47% of girls are married by 18 years of age, and 18% are married by 15 years of age. [2] These marriages are often performed without the consent of the girls involved in the marriage. Indian law has made child marriage illegal, but it is still widely practiced across the nation.The highest rates are seen particularly in the rural states of Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, and Uttar Pradesh. [3] It affects both boys and girls, but statistics show that girls are far more likely to be forced into a child marriage than boys; however the percentage of girls forced into child marriage in India has declined in recent years. Many consider child marriage to be a human r ights violation, resulting in death, health problems, poverty, violence, and lack of education. Contents Definitions of child marriageUNICEF defines child marriage as a formal marriage or union before 18 years of age. [4] UN Women defines child marriage as a forced marriage before 18 years of age because they believe children under age 18 are incapable of giving their consent. [5] History of child marriage Political turmoil Child marriage, also known as Bal Vivaha, is believed to have begun during the medieval ages of India. At this time, the political atmosphere was turbulent and ruled by Delhi Sultans in an absolute monarchy government.The sultans had an extreme commitment to their religion and forced many to convert, causing socio-cultural unrest, and Hindu women suffered the most. These days of the Delhi Sultans produced practices such as child marriage and lowered the status of women even further. They invented the ill omen of giving birth to a female baby and believed that you ng unmarried girls caused disaster. Child marriage became a widespread cultural practice with various reasons to justify it, and many marriages were performed while the girl was still an infant. [6] Military alliancesIndian feudalistic society became present, where characteristics such as honor, rivalry, and animosity were important qualities to possess, and because of this, families and kingdoms created strong military alliances to preserve or destroy power between them. To ensure the alliance was upheld by both sides, each family exchanged a young member of their household who was reared and educated at the other family's estate. The children were the assurance that the alliance between the families was honored, but in case it wasn't enough, the families made a marriage arrangement to deepen the alliance even further.They believed the marriage wouldn't work if they waited for the young children to grow up because they could possibly pick someone outside of the alliance. If they pe rformed the marriage while the children were still young and susceptible to their parents' influence, the children would have no choice but to marry who their parents chose to strengthen the alliance. [7] The caste system The caste system is also believed to have contributed to the growth of child marriage. Castes, which are based on birth and heredity, do not allow two people to marry if they are from different castes.This system was threatened by young people's emotions and desires to marry outside their caste, so out of necessity, child marriage was created to ensure the caste system continued. [8] Laws against child marriage The Child Marriage Restraint Act of 1929 The Child Marriage Restraint Act, also called the Sarda Act,[9] was a law to restrict the practice of child marriage. It was enacted on April 1, 1930, extended across the whole nation, with the exceptions of the states of Jammu and Kashmir, and applied to every Indian citizen.Its goal was to eliminate the dangers plac ed on young girls who could not handle the stress of married life and avoid early deaths. This Act defined a male child as 21 years or younger, a female child as 18 years or younger, and a minor as a child of either sex 18 years or younger. The punishment for a male between 18 and 21 years marrying a child became imprisonment of up to 15 days, a fine of 1,000 rupees, or both. The punishment for a male above 21 years of age became imprisonment of up to three months and a possible fine.The punishment for anyone who performed or directed a child marriage ceremony became imprisonment of up to three months and a possible fine, unless he could prove the marriage he performed was not a child marriage. The punishment for a parent or guardian of a child taking place in the marriage became imprisonment of up to three months or a possible fine. [10] It was amended in 1940 and 1978 to continue raising the ages of male and female children. [11] The Prohibition of Child Marriage Act, 2006Coming i nto effect on November 1, 2007, the Prohibition of Child Marriage Act (PCMA) was put into place to address and fix the shortcomings of the Child Marriage Restraint Act. [12] The change in name was meant to reflect the prevention and prohibition of child marriage, rather than restraining it. [13][14] The previous Act also made it difficult and time consuming to act against child marriages and did not focus on authorities as possible figures for preventing the marriages. [15] This Act kept the ages of adult males and females the same but made some significant changes to further protect the children.Boys and girls forced into child marriages as minors have the option of voiding their marriage up to two years after reaching adulthood, and in certain circumstances, marriages of minors can be null and void before they reach adulthood. All valuables, money, and gifts must be returned if the marriage is nullified, and the girl must be provided with a place of residency until she marries or becomes an adult. Children born from child marriages are considered legitimate, and the courts are expected to give parental custody with the children's best interests in mind.Any male over 18 years of age who enters into a marriage with a minor or anyone who directs or conducts a child marriage ceremony can be punished with up to two years of imprisonment or a fine. [16] — Latest Judgment Under Prohibition of Child Marriage Act, 2006 — It has been held by the Delhi High Court that Prohibition of Child Marriage Act, 2006 overrides all personal laws and governs each and every citizen of India– 2012 [Volume No. 3] JCC [Journal of Criminal Cases] Page No. 148 – IN The High Court of Delhi – Hon’ble The Acting Chief Justice ; Hon’ble Mr. Justice Sanjiv Khanna ; Hon’ble Mr. Justice V. K. Shali – Date of Judgment – 27th July, 2012 – Court on Its Own Motion [Lajja Devi] Vs. State – W. P. [Crl. ] No. 338 of 2 008 — Smt. Laxmi Devi & Anr. Vs. State [GNCT of Delhi] & Others – Cril. M. C. No. 100/2011 and Crl. M. A. No. 3737 of 2011 – Maha Dev Vs. State [GNCT of Delhi] & Anr. – W. P. [Crl. ] No. 821 of 2008 and Crl. M. A. No. 8765 of 2008 — Devender @ Babli Vs. State [GNCT of Delhi] & Anr. – W. P. [Crl. ] No. 66 of 2010 — Hindu Marriage Act, 1955 and Prohibition of Child Marriage Act, 2006 – section 2[a] – Issue for Consideration – [i] What is the status of marriage under the Hindu Law when one of the parties to the marriage is below the age of 18 years prescribed under Section 5 [iii] of the Hindu Marriage Act, 1955 and Section 2 [a] of the Prohibition of Child Marriage Act, 2006, and [ii] When the girl is minor [but the boy has attained the age of marriage as prescribed] whether the husband can be regarded as the lawful guardian of the minor wife and claim her custody in spite of contest and claim by the parents of the girl – what is the effect of Prohibition of Child Marriage Act, 2006. — Held: – The object behind enacting the Prohibition of Child Marriage Act, 2006 was to curb the menace of Child Marriage, which is still prevalent in this country and is most common in rural areas – Child Marriage is such a social evil which has the potentialities of dangers to the life and health of a female child and plays havoc in their lives, who cannot withstand the stress and strains of married life and it leads to early deaths of such minor mothers – It also reflects the chauvinistic attribute of the Indian Society- Even after the passing of the new Act i. e. – Prohibition of Child Marriage Act, 2006, certain loopholes still remain, the legislations are weak as they do not actually prohibit child marriage . It can be said that though the practice of child marriage has been discouraged by the legislations but it has not been completely banned – Having regard to the legal/statutory position that stands as of now leaves us to answer first part of question No. by concluding that the marriage contracted with a female of less than 18 years of a male of less than 21 years of age would not be a void marriage but voidable one, which would become valid if no steps are taken by such court has option[s] to order otherwise [Paras 1,25,26,35,40] – Prohibition of Child Marriage Act, 2006 – Section 3 – The girl, if mature, cannot and should be denied her freedom and other wishes should not get negated as of she has no voice and her wishes are of no consequences – The Court while deciding, should also keep in mind that such marriages are voidable and the girl has the right to approach the Court under Section 3 of the Prohibition of Child Marriage Act, 2006 to get the marriage declared void till she attains the age of 20 years. Para 48 ] – Indian Penal Code, 1860 – Section 375 & 376 – In case the girl is below 16 years, the answer is obvious that the consent does not matter – Offence under Section 376 Indian Penal Code is made out – The charge sheet cannot be quashed on the ground that she was a consenting party – However, there can be special or exceptional circumstances which may require consideration, in cases where the girl even after attaining majority affirms and reiterates her consent. [Para 49] — Indian Penal Code, 1860 – section 375 – Consummation, with the wife below the age of 15 years of age, is an offence under Section 375 – No exception can be made to the said constitutional mandate and the same has to be strictly and diligently enforce – Consent is such case is completely impartial, for consent at such a young age is difficult to conceive and accept – It makes no difference whether the girl is married or not – Personal law applicable to the parties is also immaterial. Para 50 ] — Indian Penal code, 1860 – Section 375 & 376 – Prohibition of Child Marriage Act, 2006 – Section 3 – If the girl is more than 16 years, and the girl makes a statement that she went with her consent and that statement and consent is without any force, coercion or undue influence, the statement could be accepted and the court will be within its power to quash the proceedings under Sections 363 or 376 Indian Penal Code, 1860 – Here again no straight jacket formulae can be applied – The court has to be cautious, for the girl has right to get marriage nullified under Section 3 of the Prohibition of Child Marriage Act, 2006 – Attending circumstances including the maturity and understanding of the girl, social background of girl, age of the girl and boy etc. have to be taken into consideration. [Para 51] – Indian Penal Code, 1860 – Section 363/366/376/465/467/494/497/120-B/506 Indian Penal Code – Prohibition of Child Marriage Act, 20 06- Section 3 – Code of Criminal Procedure, 1973 – Section 482 – As per the ossification test, the girl/petitioner No. 1 was found between 17-19 years of age – As per the school leaving certificate, she was 17 years of age on the date when the parties solemnised marriage – Since she has given the statement that she married of her own accord to the petitioner no. and was more than 16 years of age, FIR under sections 363/366/376/465/467/494/497/120-B/506 Indian Penal Code registered against the petitioner no. 2 is quashed. — Marriage and Guardianship – In this writ petition, the question is only of validity of marriage and guardianship – Even if the age of the girl is taken as 15 years of age at the time of incident i. e. – 27. 10. 2006, she would be 21 years of age as of now – she has not filed any proceedings for declaring the marriage as void. Therefore, the marriage becomes valid now – The question of gua rdianship does not arise at this stage as she is major and during the period she was minor she resided at Nirmal Chhaya- Thus, the writ petition is disposed of in the above said terms. — Held: – As per the facts noted in Para 10 above, Shivani @ Deepika at the time of her marriage was less than 16 years of age, her date of birth being 3. 6. 1994 – It was directed that she would remain at Nirmal Chhaya – However, as the per the aforesaid date of birth i. e. – 3. 6. 1994, she has attained majority on 3. 6. 2012 – The petition was filed by Sh. Devender Kumar who married her habeas corpus was claiming her custody. She has attained majority, she is free to go anywhere – with these directions, this petition stands disposed of. [Para 56,57 & 58] — Child Marriage Restraint Act, 1929 which now stands repealed by Prohibition of Child Marriage Act, 2006. Para 16] – Thus, irrespective of personal laws under Act child marriages are p rohibited. – By declaring that the Prohibition of Child Marriage Act, 2006 shall apply to all citizens, the parliament has intended to allow the Prohibition of Child Marriage Act, 2006 to override the provisions of Hindu Marriage Act to the extent of inconsistencies between these two enactments. Similarly, Prohibition of Child Marriage Act, 2006 will override the personal law. [Para 20] – Thus, the Prohibition of Child Marriage Act, 2006, being a special law, will have overriding effect over the Hindu Marriage Act, 1955 to the extent of any inconsistency between the two enactments.For this reason, the court took the view that Section 3 of Prohibition of Child Marriage Act, 2006 would have overriding effect over the Hindu Marriage Act and the marriage with a minor child would not be valid but voidable and would become valid if within two years from the date of attaining 18 years in the case of female and 21 years in the case of male, a petition is not filed before the D istrict Court under section 3 [1] of the Prohibition of Child Marriage Act, 2006 for annulling the marriage. Similarly, after attaining eighteen years of age in the case of female, or twenty one years of age in the case of a male, the marriage shall become a full-fledged valid marriage. Until such an event of acceptance of the marriage or lapse of limitation period, the marriage shall continue to remain as a voidable marriage. Para 21] – If the marriage is annulled as per Section 3[1] of the Prohibition of Child Marriage Act, 2006, the same shall take effect from the date of marriage and, in such an event, in the eye of law there shall be no marriage at all between the parties at any point of time. [Para 22] – Stronger punishments for offences under Prohibition of Child Marriage Act, 2006 have been prescribed and that the offences have also been made cognizable and non-bailable but, this does not in any event have any impact on the validity of the child marriage. †” It has made a specific provision for void marriages under certain circumstances but did not render all child marriages void. [Para 23] — Prohibition of Child Marriage Act, 2006 as noticed above is a secular law and is a latter enactment, which specifically deals with the problem of child marriages. Religion of the contracting party does not matter.Prohibition of Child Marriage Act, 2006 being a â€Å"Special Act† and being a subsequent legislation, to this extent and in case there is any conflict, will override the provisions of Hindu marriage Act or for that matter nay personal law. [Para 30] — Registration of marriage has still not been made compulsory. Compulsory registration mandates that the age of the girl and the boy getting married have to be mentioned. If implemented properly, it would discourage parents from marrying off their minor children since a written document of their ages would prove the illegality of such marriages. This would probably be able to tackle the sensitive issue of minor marriages upheld by personal laws. Para 38] —- The marriage contracted with a female of less than 18 years or a male of less than 21 years would not be a void marriage but voidable one, which would become valid if no steps are taken by such â€Å"Child† within the meaning of Section 2[a] of the Prohibition of Child Marriage Act, 2006 under Section 3 of the said Act seeking declaration of this marriage as void. [Para 40]. CEDAW The Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women, commonly known as CEDAW, is an international bill attempting to end discrimination against women. Article 16, Marriage and Family Life, states that all women, as well as men, have the right to choose their spouse, to have the same responsibilities, and to decide on how many children and the spacing between them. This convention states that child marriage should not have a legal effect, all action must be taken to enforce a m inimum age, and that all marriages must be put into an official registry. 17] India signed the convention on July 30, 1980 but made the declaration that, because of the nation's size and amount of people, it's impractical to have a registration of marriages. [18] Why parents choose child marriage Parents of a child entering into a child marriage are often poor and use the marriage as a way to make her future better, especially in areas with little economic opportunities. During times of war, parents will often marry off their young child to protect her from the conflicts raging around her. Some families still use child marriage to build alliances, as they did during the medieval ages. Statistically, a girl in a child marriage has less of a chance to go to school, and parents think education will undermine her ability to be a traditional wife and mother.Virginity is an important part of Indian culture, and parents want to ensure their daughters do not have pre-marital sex, and child marriage is an easy way to fix this. [19] Consequences of child marriage Early maternal deaths Roza Olyai, an Indian gynecologist and the National Chairperson for the Adolescent Health Committee of the Federation of the Obstetric and Gynecological Societies of India said, â€Å"Early marriage has many medical risks. The reproductive organs are not fully developed. The body is not ready. Teenage mothers, especially those below 18 years, risk hypertensive disorder, eclampsia, pre-eclampsia, and post-partum hemorrhage. â€Å"[20]Girls who marry earlier in life are less likely to be informed about reproductive issues,[21] and because of this, pregnancy-related deaths are known to be the leading cause of mortality among married girls between 15 and 19 years of age. [22] These girls are twice more likely to die in childbirth than girls between 20 and 24 years of age. [23] Girls younger than 15 years of age are 5 times more likely to die in childbirth. [24][25] HIV and AIDS Girls enterin g into a child marriage are sometimes significantly younger than their husbands, who can be more sexually experienced. Marrying young and being sexually active can increase a girl's chance of becoming HIV-positive by more than 75%. [26] Infant healthInfants born to mothers under the age of 18 are 60% more likely to die in their first year than to mothers over the age of 19. If the children survive, they are more likely to suffer from low birth weight, malnutrition, and late physical and cognitive development. [27][28] Fertility outcomes A study conducted in India by the International Institute for Population Sciences and Macro International in 2005 and 2006 showed high fertility, low fertility control, and poor fertility outcomes data within child marriages. 90. 8% of young married women reported no use of a contraceptive prior to having their first child. 23. 9% reported having a child within the first year of marriage. 17. % reported having three or more children over the course o f the marriage. 23% reported a rapid repeat childbirth, and 15. 2% reported an unwanted pregnancy. 15. 3% reported a pregnancy termination (stillbirths, miscarriages or abortions). [29] Fertility rates are higher in slums than in urban areas. [30] Lack of education and poverty Marrying young is often associated with a lack of education and higher rates of poverty. Because of household responsibilities, pregnancy, and child rearing, young girls do not have access to schooling and income opportunities. [31] Violence Young girls in a child marriage are more likely to experience domestic violence in their marriages as opposed to older women.A study conducted in India by the International Center for Research on Women showed that girls married before 18 years of age are twice as likely to be beaten, slapped, or threatened by their husbands[32] and three times more likely to experience sexual violence. [33] Young brides often show symptoms of sexual abuse and post-traumatic stress. [34] Pr evention programs in India Apni Beti, Apna Dhan (ABAD), which translates to â€Å"Our Daughter, Our Wealth,† is one of India's first conditional cash transfer programs dedicated to delaying young marriages across the nation. In 1994, the Indian government implemented this program in the state of Haryana.On the birth of a mother's first, second, or third child, they are set to receive 500 rupees, or 11 USD, within the first 15 days to cover their post-delivery needs. Along with this, the government gives 2,500 rupees, or 55 USD, to invest in a long-term savings bond in the daughter's name, which can be later cashed for 25,000 rupees, or 550 USD, after her 18 birthday. She can only receive the money if she is not married. Anju Malhotra, an expert on child marriage and adolescent girls said of this program, â€Å"No other conditional cash transfer has this focus of delaying marriage†¦ It's an incentive to encourage parents to value their daughters. â€Å"[35]The Internati onal Center for Research on Women will evaluate Apni Beti, Apna Dhan over the course of the year 2012, when the program's initial participants turn 18, to see if the program, particularly the cash incentive, has motivated parents to delay their daughters' marriages. â€Å"We have evidence that conditional cash transfer programs are very effective in keeping girls in school and getting them immunized, but we don’t yet have proof that this strategy works for preventing marriage,† said Pranita Achyut, the program manager for Apni Beti, Apna Dhan. â€Å"If Haryana state’s approach proves to be valuable, it could potentially be scaled up to make a significant difference in many more girls’ lives – and not only in India. †[36]

Mark Twain the Mirror of America Essay

Mark Twain who is well known for his master-pieces like Tom Sawyer and Huckleberry Finn, in which he used his extraordinary writing techniques thus combining rich humor, sturdy narrative and social criticism, plays a vital role in the history of American Literature. The reason why the author regarded him as a mirror of America was not only because of the true and vivid description and representation in his pieces, but for his extensive and abound life experience, including various people he had met on the steamboat, things he had heard during his early life. In the text, the writer used a word ‘cosmic’ to describe the wide range of people Mark Twain met on the steamboat. As for the theme of the text, from the steamboat on the Mississippi to the development of railway later, from the gold rush to the civil war, the writer has grabbed the trace of Mark Twain’s life experience and connect it to big transitions of American society at the same period of time. As a young country, America has witnessed several events that are powerful enough to leave significant influence to the development of the country. Mark got involved in them and created them in his books. Look more:Â  mark twain satire essay When read his works, we can review the history of that period at the same time. Through various occupations Mark Twain had engaged, he accumulated a rich knowledge of the society, which later lively reappeared on the pages of his works. I doubt that if hadn’t been for the abundant personal experience, there couldn’t be a perfect Mark Twain. Quite coincidently Moyan who have just the Nobel Prize in literature also mentioned in his banquet speech that his childhood experience out of school had played a vital role in his works, many characters including himself had been crafted in artistic ways. We can see how important the early experience plays in the creating of literature. In a nut shell, the first part of the text’s theme is that Mark’s life experiences and works are a reflection of American society at that time Besides the colorful experience of Mark Twain, the duel character of him are also worth talking about, since the great master is famous for his humor and criticism, people may regard him as the same sort of person, with humor or sometimes with a bit of sarcasm, however, the fact is widely divergent, if we reflect the overview of his family, only three of his brothers and isters survived from tragedies, which would leave an indelible impression on Mark Twain. What we do not often see is the cynical, bitter and unhappy side of him. The structure of the text is rather easy, with 22 paragraphs mainly divided into 4 parts. The first part consist only one paragraph, which serves as a general introduction to the text, through which we will have a glimpse of the great master of American literature who has both positive and negative character. The next six paragraphs depict the life routine of Mark Twain,in which he witnessed the development of the new country. The next 11 paragraphs focused on the reason why Mark turned his attention to writing, and it’s from writing rather that chasing the gold that made his name all around the world. The final part works in concert with the first paragraph, mention the reason why Mark Twain has another side of bitterness and cynical. In conclusion, this passage gives us a brief introduction of Mark Twain’s life routine and an unknown dark side of his character. And from the master’s life routine, reflects the history of America.